Today, I got fifteen copies of my recently published monograph Retranslation Through The Centuries: Jules Verne in English from the publishers, Peter Lang Ltd. I'm pleased with the job they've done on presenting the book and it's nice to finally see the finished product! The book can be viewed and ordered on the website of the publishers and there is also a link to it on their Facebook page.
At present, i'm continuing my translation work for the North American Jules Verne Society, this time rendering Verne's novel Le Beau Danube Jaune into English. My second full-length book will shortly be published by Bear Manor Fiction in the US, viz. a book of Verne translations and critical commentary provisionally entitled Vice, Redemption and the Distant Colony: Stories of Jules and Michel Verne. This book forms part of the Palik Series which I spoke about in my most recent posting. I also have a further monograph almost ready to submit to possible publishers, this time on the topic of adapting and abridging the literature of Jules Verne for younger readers and learners of English. I published a review of the collection of essays Translation and Censorship (2010, Four Courts Press, Dublin) in the most recent edition of the journal Translation Ireland. I will shortly post to this blog a review i've written of another collection of essays in the field of Translation Studies, this time, a French-language collection dealing with the teaching of Translation Theory and the formation of professional translators at third-level.
Other than that, I continue to apply for academic posts in French and/or Translation Studies and EFL Studies, with most vacancies currently arising within UK universities. It continues to be a challenging time for all of us newly-minted PhD graduates in the Humanities...
Thursday, June 30, 2011
Sunday, March 20, 2011
More on The Palik Series - translating Verne.
Here, as promised, is a copy of a flyer from the NAJVS setting out the books in the Palik series, to which i'm contributing. Book One, below, has recently been published (see my previous posting of today's date). Book 6 will also be one of the volumes to which i'm contributing.
Publications of the North American Jules Verne Society
The Palik Series (edited by Brian Taves)
1) The Marriage of a Marquis
(The Marriage of Mr. Anselme des Tilleuls and Jédédias Jamet, or The Tale of an Inheritance)
Contributors: Edward Baxter, Jean-Michel Margot, Walter James Miller, Kieran M. O’Driscoll, Brian Taves
2) Shipwrecked Family: Marooned with Uncle Robinson
Translated by Sidney Kravitz
3) Mr. Chimp, and Other Plays
Translated by Frank Morlock; Introduction by Jean-Michel Margot
4) The Count of Chanteleine: A Tale of the French Revolution
Translated by Edward Baxter; Notes by Garmt de Vries-Uiterweerd, Volker Dehs
5) Around the World in 80 Days—The 1874 Play by Jules Verne and Adolphe D’Ennery; Introduction by Philippe Burgaud
6) Stories by Jules and Michel Verne
(Fact-Finding Mission, Pierre-Jean, and The Fate of Jean Morénas)
Translated, with notes, by Kieran M. O’Driscoll
7) Bandits & Rebels: San Carlos and The Siege of Rome
Translated by Edward Baxter; Introduction by Daniel Compère
8) A Priest in 1839
Translated, with notes, by Daniele Chatelain and George Slusser
9) The Beautiful Yellow Danube
Translated, with notes, by Kieran M. O’Driscoll
10) The Fantasy World of Jules Verne—An Anthology
(Other volumes in preparation)
The North American Jules Verne Society also copublished (with Prometheus)
Journey Through the Impossible
Translated by Edward Baxter; Notes by Jean-Michel Margot
Editorial Committee of the North American Jules Verne Society:
Henry G. Franke III Jean-Michel Margot
Dr. Terry Harpold Dr. Brian Taves
The Palik Series
Several months ago, I posted an article to this blog about an early novella by Jules Verne which I had translated for the first time into English, as part of a new project by the North American Jules Verne Society (NAJVS), to publish, for the first time in English, several little-known, overlooked works by Jules Verne and also some by his son Michel (written apparently by Michel though attributed by him to his father). The novella, the first in a series of several obscure Verne writings, is entitled Jédédias Jamet or the Tale of an Inheritance.
I was notified a few days ago by the NAJVS that this translation, and my critical introduction to it, has now been published, in a book also containing the translation of another Verne novella by a Verne Studies colleague, Edward Baxter. The book is entitled The Marriage of a Marquis - First English Translation, the title of the book referring to the Baxter rendering. The book also contains articles by other members of the NAJVS on why certain Verne works such as these two have been largely overlooked up to now, offers literary analysis of these works, and so on. It can be looked up at www.amazon.com.
This tome is published by Bear Manor Fiction in the USA, as part of an NAJVS-commissioned series called The Palik Series, in honour of its instigator and benefactor, a prominent Verne scholar. Forthcoming volumes in the series will feature translations of other Verne novels and shorter stories, written by both Jules and his son Michel, though it is only comparatively recently that Verne scholars have argued that certain late-career pieces, including posthumously published works, attributed to Jules Verne were, in reality, most likely the work of his son Michel. .
One of the forthcoming volumes, to be entitled Stories by Jules and Michel Verne - Fact-Finding Mission, Pierre-Jean and The Fate of Jean Morénas, will contain three more of my translated novellas with accompanying critical material. The two latter stories - P-J and Morénas as I here abbreviate their titles - are closely related in theme, the former having been apparently written by Jules, the latter being an extended and altered reworking of it by Michel. Both stories deal with the escape from a penal colony of a convict wrongfully accused of murdering his uncle, and are Dostoyevskyian in their theme of crime, punishment, guilt and the quest for redemption. And, like the currently published 'Jamet', they provide an interesting alternative view of Verne's literature, so often categorised as primarily within the science-fiction and adventure genres.
I shall return to this blog shortly to upload some further information from the NAJVS, promoting this new series, which contributes to the ongoing Verne renaissance. Kudos to Dr Brian Taves, Verne scholar based in the Library of Congress, and his fellow editors, for delivering this new milestone in the history of Verne literature and scholarship in the English-speaking world.
I was notified a few days ago by the NAJVS that this translation, and my critical introduction to it, has now been published, in a book also containing the translation of another Verne novella by a Verne Studies colleague, Edward Baxter. The book is entitled The Marriage of a Marquis - First English Translation, the title of the book referring to the Baxter rendering. The book also contains articles by other members of the NAJVS on why certain Verne works such as these two have been largely overlooked up to now, offers literary analysis of these works, and so on. It can be looked up at www.amazon.com.
This tome is published by Bear Manor Fiction in the USA, as part of an NAJVS-commissioned series called The Palik Series, in honour of its instigator and benefactor, a prominent Verne scholar. Forthcoming volumes in the series will feature translations of other Verne novels and shorter stories, written by both Jules and his son Michel, though it is only comparatively recently that Verne scholars have argued that certain late-career pieces, including posthumously published works, attributed to Jules Verne were, in reality, most likely the work of his son Michel. .
One of the forthcoming volumes, to be entitled Stories by Jules and Michel Verne - Fact-Finding Mission, Pierre-Jean and The Fate of Jean Morénas, will contain three more of my translated novellas with accompanying critical material. The two latter stories - P-J and Morénas as I here abbreviate their titles - are closely related in theme, the former having been apparently written by Jules, the latter being an extended and altered reworking of it by Michel. Both stories deal with the escape from a penal colony of a convict wrongfully accused of murdering his uncle, and are Dostoyevskyian in their theme of crime, punishment, guilt and the quest for redemption. And, like the currently published 'Jamet', they provide an interesting alternative view of Verne's literature, so often categorised as primarily within the science-fiction and adventure genres.
I shall return to this blog shortly to upload some further information from the NAJVS, promoting this new series, which contributes to the ongoing Verne renaissance. Kudos to Dr Brian Taves, Verne scholar based in the Library of Congress, and his fellow editors, for delivering this new milestone in the history of Verne literature and scholarship in the English-speaking world.
Wednesday, February 23, 2011
Theories of children's literature and of translating for children
In this posting, I return to the topic of the translation into French of the Harry Potter novels by J.K. Rowling.
In previous postings, I've discussed numerous examples of how the translator rendered this series of novels into French, describing, and suggesting reasons for, his target language style, individual creation of French 'equivalents' for various colorfully named characters, and so on.
But in this posting, I would like to continue explaining the background to my research on the translation into French of J.K. Rowling's fiction. I will thus begin with a presentation of the main themes of the Potter novels, together with an examination of their impact within literary polysystems. I consider the reasons why they have enjoyed outstanding success, and ponder how best they might be categorized. I shall next talk about some of the academic literature on translating for children. The central consideration of this posting is, however, a discussion of translational norms.
There is probably little need to provide extensive background information on the ‘Harry Potter’ novels, so great is their renown. The basic premise of the series is that the eponymous hero is orphaned as a baby, and brought up by his aunt and uncle, the Dursleys, who indulge their own son while mistreating the unfortunate Harry Potter. They have told him that his parents were killed in a car crash, but Harry discovers the truth on his eleventh birthday, that his parents were wizards, murdered by the evil wizard Voldemort, who failed in his attempt to kill the infant Harry. This attack has left Harry with a permanent scar on his forehead and has reduced Voldemort to a semi-human fragment of his former self. Harry’s discovery of his true origins is his means of escape from his horrendous existence, as he is summoned to attend Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry, a boarding school for apprentice sorcerers. At this school, he becomes embroiled in dramatic adventures, as he is under threat from repeated attempts on his life by Voldemort. Harry discovers that he is the only wizard who can kill Voldemort, and thus save the world from the reign of terror which this Dark Lord wishes to unleash. Ultimately, Harry and his nemesis are destined to do battle in a fight to the death which only one of them can survive, a duel programmed to take place in the final novel.
Complexity and Progression
An original aspect of this series is that the central character matures over the course of the novels, in tandem with those readers who began their acquaintance with Harry Potter when they themselves were children. This feature differentiates Rowling’s writings from the works of a writer such as Enid Blyton, whose characters remained ageless over their years of formulaic crime-solving. Furthermore, as the hero grows from childhood into young adulthood, the novels become progressively longer, more complex, challenging, serious, and darker. J.K. Rowling is unflinching in her presentation of such darker themes as danger and death. These themes, together with the complexity of her plots, their symbolism, hidden layers of meaning, high literary values and challenging language, mean that these books do not conform to what is conventionally understood as ‘children’s literature’. Nor do they have clear resolutions or happy endings.
Adolescent readers are helped, through their imaginative accompaniment of Harry Potter, to negotiate the transitional journey to adulthood. This transition is also negotiated within each individual novel: Rowling’s novels generally begin in the familiar territory of conventional children’s literature, but the reader is gradually transported to a darker terrain. Rowling’s works are ‘hybrid’ and ‘transitional’, as their protagonists and some younger readers are on a bridge between childhood and adulthood.
Cross-Generational Appeal and Varied Genres
The novels thus offer a variety of genres and moods, making them appeal to a broad cross-section of the public. I have detected, in these works, elements of the traditional fantasy story, juxtaposed with a component of mystery and suspense, as well as a variety of tones and moods ranging from light comedy to horror. Therefore, Rowling’s works may require adult guidance in the case of some younger readers.
Canonicity
Rowling’s works occupy a canonical position within the literary polysystem of their Anglophone SC, and are equally esteemed in their many TCs. This contention is borne out by positive critical and academic reaction, as revealed, for example, by an examination of review articles. Let us briefly consider what some British reviewers, quoted on some of the book covers, have said: the Times Literary Supplement stated that ‘Hogwarts is a creation of genius’. The Herald appears to recognise the power of these novels to appeal to adult readers, when it describes their ‘imaginative power, emotional intensity and entrancing complexity’, parameters according to which only literature for adult readers is normally evaluated. The publication Scotland on Sunday described the second Potter novel as ‘an intricately woven, highly imaginative tale…cleverly textured, sophisticated fiction.’ As for critical reaction in France, reviews have been equally positive: the literary periodical Je Bouquine approves the third novel’s emotional range: ‘On rit toujours autant, on frissonne beaucoup plus, on pleure parfois…un bonheur absolu!’ A similarly favourable reception is accorded by Libération: ‘A ce niveau-là, ce n’est plus un succès d’édition, mais un envoûtement universel.’
As regards academic evaluation, an article dated December 10th, 2004, on a University of Kansas website, describes how a professor of English at that institution ‘turned her enjoyment of J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter books into an academic exercise.’ Giselle Anatol perceived the multiple layers of meaning and symbolism in Rowling’s texts, and began to critically analyse them. She published a series of conference papers under the title Reading Harry Potter: Critical Essays (Contributions to Popular Culture), which contained essays examining the novels from a variety of scholarly perspectives, with such titles as Reading Harry Potter through Theories of Child Development, and Harry Potter’s Schooldays: J.K. Rowling and the British Boarding School Novel. Thus, academics view the Harry Potter series as being more than simplistic literature, and refute the belief that so-called children’s literature is unworthy of serious consideration. It is recognized by such scholars that these texts have moral lessons which can influence how children interact with others. Brown (2005, p.14) notes that, while initial U.S. critical reaction tended to assess these novels according to criteria usually reserved for so-called ‘children’s literature’, their subsequent permeation of the adult literary market resulted in their being re-evaluated as serious literature (in this quotation, Brown is referring specifically to the first novel in the series):
The way in which Harrison {a literary critic} imbues the novel with “emotional essence”, “mythic vision” and “deeper emotions that underlay the best parts of the book” shows a stark difference from its reception early on, when it was mistakenly relegated to simply being a very good children’s book.
(Brown, 2005, p.14.)
Characteristics Typical of Children’s Literature
To explain the appeal of this series, as well as its literary merit, it is helpful to consider, firstly, those features which enable it to be categorized as ‘children’s literature’, and secondly, to consider those elements which have lent these works their classification as ‘adult literature’. On the one hand, the Potter novels have certain features in common with ‘young persons’ literature: the central characters are a group of children who frequently find themselves in positions of danger, and who succeed in outwitting wrongdoers and earning respect from the adult world. Furthermore, Rowling’s works are tales of fantasy, like other famous works for children, such as Arabian Nights, The Hobbit or Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland.
Brown (2005, p. 16) thus points out, in reference to Rowling’s work, that
…we are placed in a world where children have the ability to act with as much authority and importance as adults, to the point that adults here are often marginalized to minor character roles…This glorification of child authority is often seen as a defining characteristic of children’s literature.
(Brown, 2004, p.16)
Let us now contrast the above features with the characteristics more typical of adult literature.
Characteristics Typical of Adult Literature
Firstly, the quality of Rowling’s writing is far from the type of simplified language usually associated with texts for younger readers. Her style is linguistically challenging, with a formal register and advanced vocabulary. Adults have enthusiastically approved their children’s reading of Rowling’s novels, because of their high literary values, seen as educationally beneficial.
Secondly, one must acknowledge the complexity of the plots and the sweeping cast of characters. There are thus increasingly convoluted mysteries, and progressively more serious issues are dealt with, ranging from grief to adolescent anxieties. Furthermore, the ambivalent meanings and the symbolism of the novels are elements which make these texts appeal to adult readers. For example, the deadly enmity between Harry and Voldemort is symbolic of the battle between good and evil, yet these novels have a strong moral core, in that good is seen to triumph. Another example of symbolism is the suggestion of racial discrimination in the attitudes of certain wizards, who regard as inferior so-called ‘half-blood’ wizards, that is, those whose ancestry is partly non-magical. The ‘Dark Forces’ of the magical community plan to take over the world and to enslave those who are not pure-blood wizards – such a theme has symbolic connotations, bringing to mind the horrors of the Nazi regime. Such symbolism encourages readers to reflect deeply on these texts, and to interpret them figuratively, rather than on a purely literal level.
Thirdly, readers are encouraged to show empathy when they feel the emotions engendered in the young hero – such feelings include the fear of death and the pain of loneliness, cruelty, bullying (at home and at school), abuse, and bereavement. Rowling does not shy away from exposing younger readers to the harsher realities of life, yet her moral stance is reassuring.
Fourthly, in an article in the French literary magazine, Lire, the philosopher Isabelle Smadja, who has published a study of the Potter novels entitled Harry Potter, les raisons d’un succès, (Harry Potter: the secret of its success, my translation) outlines her views on the morality of Rowling’s work:
La magie noire, quant à elle, est dénoncée comme maléfique et malfaisante. Les valeurs transmises sont l’apprentissage, la diffusion du savoir. La magie sert à faire passer un message très moral sans que cela prenne l’apparence d’une morale. (As for black magic, it is denounced as being evil and harmful. The values transmitted are those of learning and the dissemination of knowledge. Magic is used to convey a very moral message, without seeming to assume the appearance of transmitting morals [my translation]).
(Dresse, 2002, p.1)
A further adult feature, which adds realism, is the level of detail deployed in describing the wizarding world. Rowling offers in-depth descriptions of the boarding school surroundings of Harry Potter - in fact, she creates a whole ancient culture for this world of sorcery, adding to its authenticity. Brown (2004, p. 17) refers to ‘this detailed fantastic world that engrosses the reader’, which, he says, is ‘more characteristic of the immersive worlds created by adult best-selling authors like John Irving and John Steinbeck.’ I feel that Rowling’s intricately fashioned magical world is equally reminiscent of Tolkein’s complex world in his Lord of the Rings series. There is also the idea that the non-magical community exists in tandem with a secret, magical parallel world: the ways in which these co-existing universes occasionally overlap is fascinating. Harry Potter thus becomes additionally exciting, in that he is one of those rare wizards who straddle these parallel communities. In this sense, he bears a type of ‘hybrid’ identity, just as the novels themselves represent a hybrid literary genre, and just as the hero and many of his readers are ‘in-between’ childhood and adulthood.
Categorization
Rowling’s works are difficult to classify. They do not slot neatly into any pre-established literary category, and they call into question the concept of ‘children’s literature’ as a lesser-quality genre. I suggest that Rowling’s cross-generational appeal has forced the reading public to reconsider notions of rigidly defined boundaries between reading matter suitable for children as opposed to adults. Her novels prove that children are capable of appreciating more challenging literature, and that adults equally enjoy works which they might normally have dismissed as intended for younger readers, if the works are of sufficient quality. J.K. Rowling has stated that when she began writing the series, she did not intend it to be aimed only at children:
I didn’t know then that it was going to be a book for children – I just knew that I had this boy, Harry.
(Fraser, 2000, p.20.)
Translating Children’s Literature.
I would now like to review, briefly, some of the main theories associated with concepts of childhood, and theories of the translation of children’s literature. One of the contemporary scholars operating in the domain of translation of texts for young people is O’Connell. She supports the notion that the translation of so-called children’s literature deserves to be researched in greater detail. She feels that two particularly worthwhile areas of research are:
…studies of current translation practice and specific problems encountered by translations…[and] studies [of] the reception and influence of translations in the target language…
(O’Connell, 2000, p.100.)
The present research attempts to investigate both of these suggested areas.
Defining Childhood
O’Connell feels that the terms ‘children’ and ‘childhood’ refer to a diverse group of readers with differing tastes. Rowling appeals to the varying expectations of a heterogeneous segment of reading children, through the originality of her writings. I find that the French translator, Jean-François Ménard, has met the challenge of transferring the creativeness of the STs into the TC, through close translational equivalence – as O’Connell points out:
This idea [the heterogeneity of children] is clearly of relevance to translators of texts for children who, if they endeavour to retain as much of the range and diversity of the original, will create translations better able to satisfy the wide-ranging needs and expectations of a heterogeneous audience of children…
(O’Connell, 2000, p.105.)
Shifting Values
O’Connell notes that cultural beliefs about what constitutes appropriate reading material for children have changed over time and across cultures. She refers to the differing translations of the Grimm brothers’ folk tale Little Red Riding Hood – different translators rendered this tale variously, according to the cultural demands of their time, some TTs being more simplified and devoid of darker elements than others. I would similarly argue that the differences between the Blyton books, with their uniform, simple themes, and the darker worlds created by writers such as Rowling and Snicket, point to a significantly altered concept of childhood reading material between the 1950s and the present.
Common Features of Children’s Literature
O’Connell notes that the concept of ‘children’s literature’ embraces a range of genres, from novels and plays to nursery rhymes and fairytales, to name but a few. It is therefore difficult to capture the scope of the concept in a concise definition. However, O’Connell isolates distinctive features of this genre. She refers to its dual audience of older and younger readers, the latter being the primary readership, as well as to the ‘ambivalent content’ (O’Connell, 2000, p.107) of many of these works – Rowling’s novels display the latter feature:
…while it is true that many works of children’s literature and other texts for children appeal essentially much more to the primary audience, others are… ‘ambivalent texts’…Such texts operate on a number of different levels of meaning and sophistication, and thus can be understood by a child in terms of their conventional, literal meaning or interpreted by an adult on a more sophisticated or satirical level as well.
(O’Connell, 2000, p. 104.)
Complex texts are sometimes simplified in translation: ‘…many ambivalent STs are much more univalent in translation’. (O’Connell, 2000, p.108.) For instance, some of Pérrault's Tales of Mother Goose were expurgated and bowdlerized of their more violent aspects in some English versions for children, e.g. in the Ladybird book versions. But this bowdlerization does not apply to the French translations of Harry Potter: I find that the French TTs of Rowling’s novels retain the multi-layered meanings of the STs, preserving all of their ambivalence and darkness.
O’Connell also notes (2000, p.109) that, as most children’s authors are adults, they can sometimes be patronizing in their choice of content or language – however, this accusation could not be levelled at Rowling. This failure to be truly in touch with the abilities of younger readers can also apply to translators. However, Ménard appears to be one of that ‘small number of translators who specialise…in works for children’ (O’Connell, 2000, p. 110), so that his capacity to respect the intelligence of his young readers is reflected in the quality of his TTs. In addition, the fact that he is also a successful writer of original French-language fiction for children ensures that he has ‘a satisfactory awareness of the full range of entertainment, didactic, linguistic and other issues involved.’ (O’Connell, 2000, p.110.) Both the STs and French TTs of the Potter novels fulfil many of the functions expected of children’s literature, namely:
…entertainment, development of linguistic skills, socialisation and the acquisition of world knowledge… (O’Connell, 2000, p.110.)
I propose that an important norm applying to the Potter French TTs was the expectation, on the part of critics, readers and publishers, that these translations would mirror the complexity and pedagogic value of the STs, and would thus be ‘adequate’ renderings. This has meant that they have not been banished to the periphery of the TC polysystem. Most such polysystems, prior to the advent of Rowling’s novels, did exclude the bulk of children’s literature to their outer edges:
…the conventional literary system, reflecting the values implicit in the traditional hierarchical family system, tends to undervalue women’s writing, while children’s literature fares even worse as it concerns children primarily and is seen…as the domain of women – whether mothers or teachers…
(O’Connell, 2000, p.112.)
A further characteristic of this genre is ‘the recurrent similarities in terms of structure, characters and language…’ (O’Connell, 2000, p. 113.) This has caused scholars to view the genre as secondary. These predictable features do not apply to the works of Rowling. Nor do they apply to many so-called 'children's writers' (in a deprecatory labelling) over the centuries. What we really need to be doing is, I suggest, to continually question our concepts of the child reader, and her often under-estimated moral strength and intellectual prowess.
Furthermore, traditional fairy tales have been accused of being stereotypical, yet they share the symbolism and ambivalence of Rowling’s novels. Thus, in considering the scholarly denigration of such texts, I agree with O’Connell that ‘perhaps it is the means of interpretation that actually fail’. (2000, p. 113.)
Conventional versus Innovative Translation
O’Connell has noted that:
…translators of contemporary children’s literature tend, in general, to conform to the norms and conventions of the target language and culture, at the expense of what would traditionally be considered a faithful translation…[because]…adults’ perception is that children are unable to tolerate ‘as much strangeness and foreignness as adult readers and…the peripheral position of translated children’s literature in most…literary polysystems causes the translator to opt for the conventional rather than the innovative.
(O’Connell, 2000, p.122.)
This tendency to translate conventionally, producing a domesticating TT, does not apply to the French Potter TTs. Ménard follows Rowling’s lead in assuming that children can tolerate challenging and foreignizing literature, and thus opts for fidelity and adequacy. The innovative nature of Ménard’s TTs is also explained by the non-peripheral position of the Potter TTs in the French literary system: the Harry Potter novels have created such anticipation in TCs that TT readers have come to expect ST loyalty and faithful reproduction, in order to fully perceive and enjoy the original content of these novels, insofar as translation can fulfil this requirement – indeed, perhaps their foreignization and newness are part of the very attraction of the Potter series in non-Anglophone cultures.
Having examined, thus far in this posting, some of the theoretical aspects of translating literature, I now want to talk a little about Gideon Toury and his model of Descriptive-Explanatory Translation Studies (DTS).
Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS)
Toury is the theorist primarily associated with DTS, and it is his model which has been used for my translation research into Verne and Rowling renderings. Toury has created a systematic methodology for describing translations. His point of departure is that there is a connection between the process of translation (i.e. the strategies adopted by the translator), the form of the translation product (and therefore, by extension, the relationships between the TT and ST) and the position and objectives of translated texts within a TC. I would suggest that the Potter TTs occupy a central position in the French literary system, because of the worldwide excitement generated by them – this canonical position of the TTs therefore dictated that they be translated faithfully, so that TT readers could appreciate the ST plots and language use, as closely as the medium of translation can permit.
Toury is therefore interested in describing
…the regularities which mark the relationships assumed to obtain between function, product and process.
(Toury, 1995, p. 24 )
He regards translations as being, primarily, products of the receptor culture in which they are formulated:
In an attempt to pursue this [descriptive] goal, translations have been regarded as facts of the culture which hosts them…whatever their function and identity, they are constituted within that same culture and reflect its own constellation… this approach to the study of translations and translating in their immediate contexts earned the nickname of ‘target-oriented’.
(Toury, 1995, p.24 )
Toury’s concern with target-orientedness means that he wishes to describe TTs as they actually are, both as products of their TC (and thus as independent TC texts in their own right and not merely as dependent forms derived from some other culture) and as texts inspired by a ST. He strives for objective description of TTs, moving away from the ‘extreme source-orientedness’ (Toury, 1995, p.24) of Translation Studies in the 1970s, a period during which
The preoccupation was mainly with the source text and the proclaimed protection of its ‘legitimate rights’. Target constraints, while never totally ignored, often counted as subsidiary…Many factors which govern real-life translational behaviour, and the fact that these factors resulted in a variety of very different translation traditions, were resented or…relegated to the realm of ‘mere’ history.
(Toury, 1995, p. 24 )
Toury’s objective in describing translations is to suggest possible universal laws of translational behaviour, as well as to describe the values attached to translation activity by the TC in question:
…my own endeavours have always been geared primarily toward the descriptive-explanatory goal of supplying exhaustive accounts of whatever has been regarded as translational within a TC, on the way to the formulation of some theoretical laws.
(Toury, 1995, p. 25 )
He describes the difference between translational prescriptivism and his concept of DTS:
Under such observation [i.e. translation description], there is no pretence that the nature of translation is given or fixed in any way…What is addressed…is not even what translation is in general, but what it proves to be in reality, and hence what it may be expected to be under various specifiable conditions. (Toury, 1995, p.32 )
In my analysis of the Potter corpus, I therefore assumed that equivalence of some kind existed, and sought to describe and account for that equivalence.
The Tripartite DTS Model
Munday (2001, p.112) lists the three steps of Toury’s descriptive methodology, which ‘incorporat(es) a description of the product and the wider role of the sociocultural system’ (Munday, 2001, p. 112):
1 Situate the text within the target culture system, looking at its significance or acceptability.
2 Compare the ST and the TT for shifts, identifying relationships between ‘coupled pairs’ of ST and TT segments, and attempting generalizations about the underlying concept of translation.
3 Draw implications for future decision-making in future translating.
(Munday, 2001, p. 112)
Toury recommends widening the scope of descriptive research to increasingly larger corpora, in order to further validate, and extend, findings on norms. In Chapter 4, I suggest further research topics which involve extending the present corpus. As Toury says,
…one assumed translation, or even one pair of texts, would not constitute a proper corpus for study, if the intention is indeed to expose the culturally determined interdependencies of function, process and product… Any aspiration to supply valid explanations would …involve an extension of the corpus according to some principle…[such as] text-type, translator, period…[etc.]…striving for higher-level generalization and explanation…
(Toury, 1995, p.38 )
Ad-hoc Selection of Segments
Toury admits that the choice of an appropriate extract for analysis is ‘ad-hoc’, usually based on intuition. Munday explains that this part of the DTS model is a bone of contention:
The decisions on which ST and TT segments to examine and what the relationships are between them is an apparatus which Toury…says should be supplied by translation theory. Yet…linguistic translation theory is far from reaching a consensus as to what that apparatus should be…The result is a flexible and non-prescriptive, if also less than rigorously systematic, means of comparing ST and TT.
(Munday, 2001, pp.112, 113.)
This points to a possible limitation of Toury’s model: as the selection of segments to analyze is inevitably ‘ad-hoc’, the choices are not based on any statistically rigorous sampling methods, so that the findings may be less than scientifically grounded. On the other hand, I had read the entire parallel corpus and discerned global translation orientations, before selecting an extract for finer analysis. Therefore, I contend that my findings are soundly based on the entire corpus.
The Translator as a Cultural Mediator in a System of Norms
Toury sees the translator as being more than some type of mechanical generator of linguistic equivalents. S/he is, rather, an active, norm-obeying cultural mediator:
Translation activities should rather be regarded as having cultural significance. Consequently, ‘translatorship’ amounts first and foremost to being able to play a social role, i.e. to fulfil a function allotted by a community – to the activity, its practitioners and/or their products – in a way which is deemed appropriate to its own terms of reference.
(Toury, 1995, p53. )
The 2003 edition of the Collins English Dictionary defines a norm, in the sociological sense, as ‘an established standard of behaviour shared by members of a social group to which each member is expected to conform.’ Norms are thus culturally determined guidelines as to expected patterns of behaviour – Munday explains that they are
…sociocultural constraints specific to a culture, society and time. An individual is said to acquire them from the general process of education and socialization.
(Munday, 2001, p.113.)
Toury sees translatorial behaviour as governed by norms which regulate appropriate strategies in specific translational situations. His own definition of norms is
…the translation of general values or ideas shared by a community – as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate – into performance instructions appropriate for and applicable to particular situations.
(Toury, 1995, p.55)
Toury sees norms as being situated midway between ‘general, relatively absolute rules’ and ‘pure idiosyncracies’ – they are social and cultural prescriptions for acceptable behaviour, some of which are ‘stronger and rule-like’, while others are ‘almost idiosyncratic’. Ultimately, a translator who manifests excessive deviation from normatively prescribed standards, will find her/himself subject to the sanction of no longer being employed. Acquired norms are thus constraints on translatorial freedom, which play a ‘role in directing translation activity in socio-culturally relevant settings’. (Toury, 1995, p.55). Because they control behaviour, norms allow us to observe regularities in translation shifts. They can be more or less constraining, depending on their potency.
Norms are inductively reconstructed through analyses of the corpora themselves, as well as through studying metatexts and paratexts such as declarations of translators, publishers and reviewers. However, corpora themselves are the most objective sources of information on norms, as statements made about translations may be biased in favour of individual views.
Toury’s Categories of Norms
Toury lists various norms, which operate at different stages of the translation process. His initial norm refers to the question of whether a translator adheres to ST norms or to those of the TC and TL – the former strategy yields what Toury describes as the adequacy of a translation, whereas the latter leads to the acceptability of a TT. Therefore, an adequate translation
…will tend to subscribe to the norms of the source text, and through them also to the norms of the SL culture [which may] entail certain incompatibilities with target norms and practices, especially [non-linguistic] ones.
(Toury, 1995, p.56 )
In the Potter TTs, the findings illustrate that there is adequacy in Ménard’s loyalty to the ST message, and in the retention of many original proper names. But, as Toury points out:
If, on the other hand, the second stance is adopted, norm systems of the TC are triggered and set into motion. Shifts from the ST would be an almost inevitable price.
(Toury, 1995, p.56 )
There is a significant degree of acceptability in Ménard’s TTs, from the viewpoint of idiomatic TL usage and the alteration of some ST proper names to TC equivalents. As Toury points out:
…even the most adequacy-oriented translation involves shifts from the ST…the occurrence of shifts [is] a true universal of translation.
(Toury, 1995, p.57 )
Munday points out, therefore, that
…no translation is… totally adequate or totally acceptable.
(Munday, 2001, p.113 )
The Potter TTs thus manifest the influence of competing SC and TC norms, so that they are a ‘hybrid’ of adequacy and acceptability. This confirms Toury’s statement that
Actual translation decisions (the results of which the researcher would confront) will necessarily involve some … compromise between the extremes implied by the initial norm.
(Toury, 1995, p.57 )
Toury goes on to describe preliminary norms as consisting of two subordinate concepts, namely, translation policy and directness of translation. The former norm refers to the reasons governing the selection of particular texts for translation. The latter norm considers whether a TT is a direct translation or whether there is an intermediate language involved.
Toury next describes operational norms, which he sub-divides into matricial norms and textual-linguistic norms. The former norms consider such issues as whether the TT is a complete and unabridged rendering of its source (the Potter TTs are indeed complete); whether certain passages have been relocated or omitted, and whether the translator has used footnotes (there is no relocation and no use of footnotes in the Potter TTs, and hardly any omission). On the other hand, many translators (perhaps mainly of older texts) use footnotes and/or endnotes, often quite detailed, to explain and interpret/justify translation choices, talk about the original text and writer, etc. Perhaps future Potter translations, in decades/centuries to come, will be scholarly, annotated editions.
Textual-linguistic norms are the most time-consuming component of DTS research, as they are concerned with analysing individual items of the text. Toury describes these norms, saying that they
…govern the selection of material to formulate the target text in, or replace the original textual and linguistic material with…[they consist of] general norms of translation and particular norms which would apply to a particular text-type. Some of them may be identical to the norms governing non-translational text production, but such an identity should never be taken for granted…[this is why] no study of translation can or…should [assume that] the latter is representative of the target language.
(Toury, 1995, p.59 )
I have, therefore, in my findings, briefly compared Ménard’s TTs with comparable corpora of non-translational (original) French youth-oriented literature. As Toury says:
An interesting field of study is…comparative: the nature of translational norms as compared to those governing non-translational kinds of text production…this kind of study is vital, if translating and translations are to be appropriately contextualized.
(Toury, 1995, p.61 )
Individual translators may show varying degrees of compliance with norms:
[It is] not as if all translators are passive in the face of…changes [in norms]…Rather, many of them, through their very activity, help in shaping the process…Wittingly or unwittingly, they all try to interfere with the ‘natural’ course of events and to divert it according to their own preferences…Complying with social pressures to constantly adjust one’s behaviour to norms that keep changing is …far from simple, and most people…do so only up to a point.
(Toury, 1995, p.62 )
It could, therefore, be difficult to judge whether a particular instance of translational behaviour is normative, idiosyncratic, or even deviant. One must analyse a sufficient number of ST and TT coupled pairs to be confident of one’s hypotheses.
Toury sums up the intricacy of his model:
[there is a]…multiplicity and variation of norms…real-life situations tend to be complex…[one must] note this complexity to draw any justifiable conclusions…the only viable way out seems to be to contextualise every phenomenon, every item, every text, every act, on the way to allotting the different norms themselves their appropriate position and valence…
(Toury, 1995, p.63 )
Toury’s Norms as Providing a Methodology for my Research on Rowling translations
I began by studying the Potter TTs as independent entities, without reference to the STs, to guage their readability and acceptability. As Toury says:
…it is advisable to start by studying assumed translations, along with their constituents, in terms of their ACCEPTABILITY [Toury’s emphasis] in the system(s) of which they purportedly form part.
(Toury, 1995, p. 71 )
The essential activity in my DTS research was to analyse translation shifts, to discern how corresponding ST and TT segments were related, and to establish what this revealed about underlying normative influences:
…the study could proceed to facts which are observational in the ‘second order’, i.e. facts which need to be (re)constructed before they can be submitted to scrutiny, most notably the relationships which tie together the output and input of individual acts, the ultimate intention being to end up reconstructing the non-observables at their roots, particularly the processes whereby they came into being…it will normally be TT segments…which would be mapped onto segments of the ST. In the process of mapping, the status of the former as translational replacements would be established, along with what they may be said to have replaced, thus shedding light on problems as they may have presented themselves in the particular act which yielded the text under observation, and on their solutions. (my emphasis.)
(Toury, 1995, p.94 )
Individual pairs of replaced and replacing segments of the Potter corpus – ST segments and their corresponding TT segments – were thus analysed as to the likely norms which lay beneath them. Toury states that the ‘ultimate goal of studies into individual pairs of texts’ is to establish, for a corpus, the ‘norm of translation equivalence’ and the ‘underlying concept of translation’. (Toury, 1995, p.95).
Conclusion: Comparing and contrasting source texts and target texts, comparing source language usage with target language usage in (re)translations...
So, in what has been a very long posting, i've discussed, albeit in general terms, the theoretical background to DTS and to translating for younger readers, and the research methods which inform my ongoing Translation Studies research, in which I look at how works of literature have entered and re-entered other language communities and cultures, through translation and retranslation, over decades and centuries.
In previous postings, I've discussed numerous examples of how the translator rendered this series of novels into French, describing, and suggesting reasons for, his target language style, individual creation of French 'equivalents' for various colorfully named characters, and so on.
But in this posting, I would like to continue explaining the background to my research on the translation into French of J.K. Rowling's fiction. I will thus begin with a presentation of the main themes of the Potter novels, together with an examination of their impact within literary polysystems. I consider the reasons why they have enjoyed outstanding success, and ponder how best they might be categorized. I shall next talk about some of the academic literature on translating for children. The central consideration of this posting is, however, a discussion of translational norms.
There is probably little need to provide extensive background information on the ‘Harry Potter’ novels, so great is their renown. The basic premise of the series is that the eponymous hero is orphaned as a baby, and brought up by his aunt and uncle, the Dursleys, who indulge their own son while mistreating the unfortunate Harry Potter. They have told him that his parents were killed in a car crash, but Harry discovers the truth on his eleventh birthday, that his parents were wizards, murdered by the evil wizard Voldemort, who failed in his attempt to kill the infant Harry. This attack has left Harry with a permanent scar on his forehead and has reduced Voldemort to a semi-human fragment of his former self. Harry’s discovery of his true origins is his means of escape from his horrendous existence, as he is summoned to attend Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry, a boarding school for apprentice sorcerers. At this school, he becomes embroiled in dramatic adventures, as he is under threat from repeated attempts on his life by Voldemort. Harry discovers that he is the only wizard who can kill Voldemort, and thus save the world from the reign of terror which this Dark Lord wishes to unleash. Ultimately, Harry and his nemesis are destined to do battle in a fight to the death which only one of them can survive, a duel programmed to take place in the final novel.
Complexity and Progression
An original aspect of this series is that the central character matures over the course of the novels, in tandem with those readers who began their acquaintance with Harry Potter when they themselves were children. This feature differentiates Rowling’s writings from the works of a writer such as Enid Blyton, whose characters remained ageless over their years of formulaic crime-solving. Furthermore, as the hero grows from childhood into young adulthood, the novels become progressively longer, more complex, challenging, serious, and darker. J.K. Rowling is unflinching in her presentation of such darker themes as danger and death. These themes, together with the complexity of her plots, their symbolism, hidden layers of meaning, high literary values and challenging language, mean that these books do not conform to what is conventionally understood as ‘children’s literature’. Nor do they have clear resolutions or happy endings.
Adolescent readers are helped, through their imaginative accompaniment of Harry Potter, to negotiate the transitional journey to adulthood. This transition is also negotiated within each individual novel: Rowling’s novels generally begin in the familiar territory of conventional children’s literature, but the reader is gradually transported to a darker terrain. Rowling’s works are ‘hybrid’ and ‘transitional’, as their protagonists and some younger readers are on a bridge between childhood and adulthood.
Cross-Generational Appeal and Varied Genres
The novels thus offer a variety of genres and moods, making them appeal to a broad cross-section of the public. I have detected, in these works, elements of the traditional fantasy story, juxtaposed with a component of mystery and suspense, as well as a variety of tones and moods ranging from light comedy to horror. Therefore, Rowling’s works may require adult guidance in the case of some younger readers.
Canonicity
Rowling’s works occupy a canonical position within the literary polysystem of their Anglophone SC, and are equally esteemed in their many TCs. This contention is borne out by positive critical and academic reaction, as revealed, for example, by an examination of review articles. Let us briefly consider what some British reviewers, quoted on some of the book covers, have said: the Times Literary Supplement stated that ‘Hogwarts is a creation of genius’. The Herald appears to recognise the power of these novels to appeal to adult readers, when it describes their ‘imaginative power, emotional intensity and entrancing complexity’, parameters according to which only literature for adult readers is normally evaluated. The publication Scotland on Sunday described the second Potter novel as ‘an intricately woven, highly imaginative tale…cleverly textured, sophisticated fiction.’ As for critical reaction in France, reviews have been equally positive: the literary periodical Je Bouquine approves the third novel’s emotional range: ‘On rit toujours autant, on frissonne beaucoup plus, on pleure parfois…un bonheur absolu!’ A similarly favourable reception is accorded by Libération: ‘A ce niveau-là, ce n’est plus un succès d’édition, mais un envoûtement universel.’
As regards academic evaluation, an article dated December 10th, 2004, on a University of Kansas website, describes how a professor of English at that institution ‘turned her enjoyment of J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter books into an academic exercise.’ Giselle Anatol perceived the multiple layers of meaning and symbolism in Rowling’s texts, and began to critically analyse them. She published a series of conference papers under the title Reading Harry Potter: Critical Essays (Contributions to Popular Culture), which contained essays examining the novels from a variety of scholarly perspectives, with such titles as Reading Harry Potter through Theories of Child Development, and Harry Potter’s Schooldays: J.K. Rowling and the British Boarding School Novel. Thus, academics view the Harry Potter series as being more than simplistic literature, and refute the belief that so-called children’s literature is unworthy of serious consideration. It is recognized by such scholars that these texts have moral lessons which can influence how children interact with others. Brown (2005, p.14) notes that, while initial U.S. critical reaction tended to assess these novels according to criteria usually reserved for so-called ‘children’s literature’, their subsequent permeation of the adult literary market resulted in their being re-evaluated as serious literature (in this quotation, Brown is referring specifically to the first novel in the series):
The way in which Harrison {a literary critic} imbues the novel with “emotional essence”, “mythic vision” and “deeper emotions that underlay the best parts of the book” shows a stark difference from its reception early on, when it was mistakenly relegated to simply being a very good children’s book.
(Brown, 2005, p.14.)
Characteristics Typical of Children’s Literature
To explain the appeal of this series, as well as its literary merit, it is helpful to consider, firstly, those features which enable it to be categorized as ‘children’s literature’, and secondly, to consider those elements which have lent these works their classification as ‘adult literature’. On the one hand, the Potter novels have certain features in common with ‘young persons’ literature: the central characters are a group of children who frequently find themselves in positions of danger, and who succeed in outwitting wrongdoers and earning respect from the adult world. Furthermore, Rowling’s works are tales of fantasy, like other famous works for children, such as Arabian Nights, The Hobbit or Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland.
Brown (2005, p. 16) thus points out, in reference to Rowling’s work, that
…we are placed in a world where children have the ability to act with as much authority and importance as adults, to the point that adults here are often marginalized to minor character roles…This glorification of child authority is often seen as a defining characteristic of children’s literature.
(Brown, 2004, p.16)
Let us now contrast the above features with the characteristics more typical of adult literature.
Characteristics Typical of Adult Literature
Firstly, the quality of Rowling’s writing is far from the type of simplified language usually associated with texts for younger readers. Her style is linguistically challenging, with a formal register and advanced vocabulary. Adults have enthusiastically approved their children’s reading of Rowling’s novels, because of their high literary values, seen as educationally beneficial.
Secondly, one must acknowledge the complexity of the plots and the sweeping cast of characters. There are thus increasingly convoluted mysteries, and progressively more serious issues are dealt with, ranging from grief to adolescent anxieties. Furthermore, the ambivalent meanings and the symbolism of the novels are elements which make these texts appeal to adult readers. For example, the deadly enmity between Harry and Voldemort is symbolic of the battle between good and evil, yet these novels have a strong moral core, in that good is seen to triumph. Another example of symbolism is the suggestion of racial discrimination in the attitudes of certain wizards, who regard as inferior so-called ‘half-blood’ wizards, that is, those whose ancestry is partly non-magical. The ‘Dark Forces’ of the magical community plan to take over the world and to enslave those who are not pure-blood wizards – such a theme has symbolic connotations, bringing to mind the horrors of the Nazi regime. Such symbolism encourages readers to reflect deeply on these texts, and to interpret them figuratively, rather than on a purely literal level.
Thirdly, readers are encouraged to show empathy when they feel the emotions engendered in the young hero – such feelings include the fear of death and the pain of loneliness, cruelty, bullying (at home and at school), abuse, and bereavement. Rowling does not shy away from exposing younger readers to the harsher realities of life, yet her moral stance is reassuring.
Fourthly, in an article in the French literary magazine, Lire, the philosopher Isabelle Smadja, who has published a study of the Potter novels entitled Harry Potter, les raisons d’un succès, (Harry Potter: the secret of its success, my translation) outlines her views on the morality of Rowling’s work:
La magie noire, quant à elle, est dénoncée comme maléfique et malfaisante. Les valeurs transmises sont l’apprentissage, la diffusion du savoir. La magie sert à faire passer un message très moral sans que cela prenne l’apparence d’une morale. (As for black magic, it is denounced as being evil and harmful. The values transmitted are those of learning and the dissemination of knowledge. Magic is used to convey a very moral message, without seeming to assume the appearance of transmitting morals [my translation]).
(Dresse, 2002, p.1)
A further adult feature, which adds realism, is the level of detail deployed in describing the wizarding world. Rowling offers in-depth descriptions of the boarding school surroundings of Harry Potter - in fact, she creates a whole ancient culture for this world of sorcery, adding to its authenticity. Brown (2004, p. 17) refers to ‘this detailed fantastic world that engrosses the reader’, which, he says, is ‘more characteristic of the immersive worlds created by adult best-selling authors like John Irving and John Steinbeck.’ I feel that Rowling’s intricately fashioned magical world is equally reminiscent of Tolkein’s complex world in his Lord of the Rings series. There is also the idea that the non-magical community exists in tandem with a secret, magical parallel world: the ways in which these co-existing universes occasionally overlap is fascinating. Harry Potter thus becomes additionally exciting, in that he is one of those rare wizards who straddle these parallel communities. In this sense, he bears a type of ‘hybrid’ identity, just as the novels themselves represent a hybrid literary genre, and just as the hero and many of his readers are ‘in-between’ childhood and adulthood.
Categorization
Rowling’s works are difficult to classify. They do not slot neatly into any pre-established literary category, and they call into question the concept of ‘children’s literature’ as a lesser-quality genre. I suggest that Rowling’s cross-generational appeal has forced the reading public to reconsider notions of rigidly defined boundaries between reading matter suitable for children as opposed to adults. Her novels prove that children are capable of appreciating more challenging literature, and that adults equally enjoy works which they might normally have dismissed as intended for younger readers, if the works are of sufficient quality. J.K. Rowling has stated that when she began writing the series, she did not intend it to be aimed only at children:
I didn’t know then that it was going to be a book for children – I just knew that I had this boy, Harry.
(Fraser, 2000, p.20.)
Translating Children’s Literature.
I would now like to review, briefly, some of the main theories associated with concepts of childhood, and theories of the translation of children’s literature. One of the contemporary scholars operating in the domain of translation of texts for young people is O’Connell. She supports the notion that the translation of so-called children’s literature deserves to be researched in greater detail. She feels that two particularly worthwhile areas of research are:
…studies of current translation practice and specific problems encountered by translations…[and] studies [of] the reception and influence of translations in the target language…
(O’Connell, 2000, p.100.)
The present research attempts to investigate both of these suggested areas.
Defining Childhood
O’Connell feels that the terms ‘children’ and ‘childhood’ refer to a diverse group of readers with differing tastes. Rowling appeals to the varying expectations of a heterogeneous segment of reading children, through the originality of her writings. I find that the French translator, Jean-François Ménard, has met the challenge of transferring the creativeness of the STs into the TC, through close translational equivalence – as O’Connell points out:
This idea [the heterogeneity of children] is clearly of relevance to translators of texts for children who, if they endeavour to retain as much of the range and diversity of the original, will create translations better able to satisfy the wide-ranging needs and expectations of a heterogeneous audience of children…
(O’Connell, 2000, p.105.)
Shifting Values
O’Connell notes that cultural beliefs about what constitutes appropriate reading material for children have changed over time and across cultures. She refers to the differing translations of the Grimm brothers’ folk tale Little Red Riding Hood – different translators rendered this tale variously, according to the cultural demands of their time, some TTs being more simplified and devoid of darker elements than others. I would similarly argue that the differences between the Blyton books, with their uniform, simple themes, and the darker worlds created by writers such as Rowling and Snicket, point to a significantly altered concept of childhood reading material between the 1950s and the present.
Common Features of Children’s Literature
O’Connell notes that the concept of ‘children’s literature’ embraces a range of genres, from novels and plays to nursery rhymes and fairytales, to name but a few. It is therefore difficult to capture the scope of the concept in a concise definition. However, O’Connell isolates distinctive features of this genre. She refers to its dual audience of older and younger readers, the latter being the primary readership, as well as to the ‘ambivalent content’ (O’Connell, 2000, p.107) of many of these works – Rowling’s novels display the latter feature:
…while it is true that many works of children’s literature and other texts for children appeal essentially much more to the primary audience, others are… ‘ambivalent texts’…Such texts operate on a number of different levels of meaning and sophistication, and thus can be understood by a child in terms of their conventional, literal meaning or interpreted by an adult on a more sophisticated or satirical level as well.
(O’Connell, 2000, p. 104.)
Complex texts are sometimes simplified in translation: ‘…many ambivalent STs are much more univalent in translation’. (O’Connell, 2000, p.108.) For instance, some of Pérrault's Tales of Mother Goose were expurgated and bowdlerized of their more violent aspects in some English versions for children, e.g. in the Ladybird book versions. But this bowdlerization does not apply to the French translations of Harry Potter: I find that the French TTs of Rowling’s novels retain the multi-layered meanings of the STs, preserving all of their ambivalence and darkness.
O’Connell also notes (2000, p.109) that, as most children’s authors are adults, they can sometimes be patronizing in their choice of content or language – however, this accusation could not be levelled at Rowling. This failure to be truly in touch with the abilities of younger readers can also apply to translators. However, Ménard appears to be one of that ‘small number of translators who specialise…in works for children’ (O’Connell, 2000, p. 110), so that his capacity to respect the intelligence of his young readers is reflected in the quality of his TTs. In addition, the fact that he is also a successful writer of original French-language fiction for children ensures that he has ‘a satisfactory awareness of the full range of entertainment, didactic, linguistic and other issues involved.’ (O’Connell, 2000, p.110.) Both the STs and French TTs of the Potter novels fulfil many of the functions expected of children’s literature, namely:
…entertainment, development of linguistic skills, socialisation and the acquisition of world knowledge… (O’Connell, 2000, p.110.)
I propose that an important norm applying to the Potter French TTs was the expectation, on the part of critics, readers and publishers, that these translations would mirror the complexity and pedagogic value of the STs, and would thus be ‘adequate’ renderings. This has meant that they have not been banished to the periphery of the TC polysystem. Most such polysystems, prior to the advent of Rowling’s novels, did exclude the bulk of children’s literature to their outer edges:
…the conventional literary system, reflecting the values implicit in the traditional hierarchical family system, tends to undervalue women’s writing, while children’s literature fares even worse as it concerns children primarily and is seen…as the domain of women – whether mothers or teachers…
(O’Connell, 2000, p.112.)
A further characteristic of this genre is ‘the recurrent similarities in terms of structure, characters and language…’ (O’Connell, 2000, p. 113.) This has caused scholars to view the genre as secondary. These predictable features do not apply to the works of Rowling. Nor do they apply to many so-called 'children's writers' (in a deprecatory labelling) over the centuries. What we really need to be doing is, I suggest, to continually question our concepts of the child reader, and her often under-estimated moral strength and intellectual prowess.
Furthermore, traditional fairy tales have been accused of being stereotypical, yet they share the symbolism and ambivalence of Rowling’s novels. Thus, in considering the scholarly denigration of such texts, I agree with O’Connell that ‘perhaps it is the means of interpretation that actually fail’. (2000, p. 113.)
Conventional versus Innovative Translation
O’Connell has noted that:
…translators of contemporary children’s literature tend, in general, to conform to the norms and conventions of the target language and culture, at the expense of what would traditionally be considered a faithful translation…[because]…adults’ perception is that children are unable to tolerate ‘as much strangeness and foreignness as adult readers and…the peripheral position of translated children’s literature in most…literary polysystems causes the translator to opt for the conventional rather than the innovative.
(O’Connell, 2000, p.122.)
This tendency to translate conventionally, producing a domesticating TT, does not apply to the French Potter TTs. Ménard follows Rowling’s lead in assuming that children can tolerate challenging and foreignizing literature, and thus opts for fidelity and adequacy. The innovative nature of Ménard’s TTs is also explained by the non-peripheral position of the Potter TTs in the French literary system: the Harry Potter novels have created such anticipation in TCs that TT readers have come to expect ST loyalty and faithful reproduction, in order to fully perceive and enjoy the original content of these novels, insofar as translation can fulfil this requirement – indeed, perhaps their foreignization and newness are part of the very attraction of the Potter series in non-Anglophone cultures.
Having examined, thus far in this posting, some of the theoretical aspects of translating literature, I now want to talk a little about Gideon Toury and his model of Descriptive-Explanatory Translation Studies (DTS).
Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS)
Toury is the theorist primarily associated with DTS, and it is his model which has been used for my translation research into Verne and Rowling renderings. Toury has created a systematic methodology for describing translations. His point of departure is that there is a connection between the process of translation (i.e. the strategies adopted by the translator), the form of the translation product (and therefore, by extension, the relationships between the TT and ST) and the position and objectives of translated texts within a TC. I would suggest that the Potter TTs occupy a central position in the French literary system, because of the worldwide excitement generated by them – this canonical position of the TTs therefore dictated that they be translated faithfully, so that TT readers could appreciate the ST plots and language use, as closely as the medium of translation can permit.
Toury is therefore interested in describing
…the regularities which mark the relationships assumed to obtain between function, product and process.
(Toury, 1995, p. 24 )
He regards translations as being, primarily, products of the receptor culture in which they are formulated:
In an attempt to pursue this [descriptive] goal, translations have been regarded as facts of the culture which hosts them…whatever their function and identity, they are constituted within that same culture and reflect its own constellation… this approach to the study of translations and translating in their immediate contexts earned the nickname of ‘target-oriented’.
(Toury, 1995, p.24 )
Toury’s concern with target-orientedness means that he wishes to describe TTs as they actually are, both as products of their TC (and thus as independent TC texts in their own right and not merely as dependent forms derived from some other culture) and as texts inspired by a ST. He strives for objective description of TTs, moving away from the ‘extreme source-orientedness’ (Toury, 1995, p.24) of Translation Studies in the 1970s, a period during which
The preoccupation was mainly with the source text and the proclaimed protection of its ‘legitimate rights’. Target constraints, while never totally ignored, often counted as subsidiary…Many factors which govern real-life translational behaviour, and the fact that these factors resulted in a variety of very different translation traditions, were resented or…relegated to the realm of ‘mere’ history.
(Toury, 1995, p. 24 )
Toury’s objective in describing translations is to suggest possible universal laws of translational behaviour, as well as to describe the values attached to translation activity by the TC in question:
…my own endeavours have always been geared primarily toward the descriptive-explanatory goal of supplying exhaustive accounts of whatever has been regarded as translational within a TC, on the way to the formulation of some theoretical laws.
(Toury, 1995, p. 25 )
He describes the difference between translational prescriptivism and his concept of DTS:
Under such observation [i.e. translation description], there is no pretence that the nature of translation is given or fixed in any way…What is addressed…is not even what translation is in general, but what it proves to be in reality, and hence what it may be expected to be under various specifiable conditions. (Toury, 1995, p.32 )
In my analysis of the Potter corpus, I therefore assumed that equivalence of some kind existed, and sought to describe and account for that equivalence.
The Tripartite DTS Model
Munday (2001, p.112) lists the three steps of Toury’s descriptive methodology, which ‘incorporat(es) a description of the product and the wider role of the sociocultural system’ (Munday, 2001, p. 112):
1 Situate the text within the target culture system, looking at its significance or acceptability.
2 Compare the ST and the TT for shifts, identifying relationships between ‘coupled pairs’ of ST and TT segments, and attempting generalizations about the underlying concept of translation.
3 Draw implications for future decision-making in future translating.
(Munday, 2001, p. 112)
Toury recommends widening the scope of descriptive research to increasingly larger corpora, in order to further validate, and extend, findings on norms. In Chapter 4, I suggest further research topics which involve extending the present corpus. As Toury says,
…one assumed translation, or even one pair of texts, would not constitute a proper corpus for study, if the intention is indeed to expose the culturally determined interdependencies of function, process and product… Any aspiration to supply valid explanations would …involve an extension of the corpus according to some principle…[such as] text-type, translator, period…[etc.]…striving for higher-level generalization and explanation…
(Toury, 1995, p.38 )
Ad-hoc Selection of Segments
Toury admits that the choice of an appropriate extract for analysis is ‘ad-hoc’, usually based on intuition. Munday explains that this part of the DTS model is a bone of contention:
The decisions on which ST and TT segments to examine and what the relationships are between them is an apparatus which Toury…says should be supplied by translation theory. Yet…linguistic translation theory is far from reaching a consensus as to what that apparatus should be…The result is a flexible and non-prescriptive, if also less than rigorously systematic, means of comparing ST and TT.
(Munday, 2001, pp.112, 113.)
This points to a possible limitation of Toury’s model: as the selection of segments to analyze is inevitably ‘ad-hoc’, the choices are not based on any statistically rigorous sampling methods, so that the findings may be less than scientifically grounded. On the other hand, I had read the entire parallel corpus and discerned global translation orientations, before selecting an extract for finer analysis. Therefore, I contend that my findings are soundly based on the entire corpus.
The Translator as a Cultural Mediator in a System of Norms
Toury sees the translator as being more than some type of mechanical generator of linguistic equivalents. S/he is, rather, an active, norm-obeying cultural mediator:
Translation activities should rather be regarded as having cultural significance. Consequently, ‘translatorship’ amounts first and foremost to being able to play a social role, i.e. to fulfil a function allotted by a community – to the activity, its practitioners and/or their products – in a way which is deemed appropriate to its own terms of reference.
(Toury, 1995, p53. )
The 2003 edition of the Collins English Dictionary defines a norm, in the sociological sense, as ‘an established standard of behaviour shared by members of a social group to which each member is expected to conform.’ Norms are thus culturally determined guidelines as to expected patterns of behaviour – Munday explains that they are
…sociocultural constraints specific to a culture, society and time. An individual is said to acquire them from the general process of education and socialization.
(Munday, 2001, p.113.)
Toury sees translatorial behaviour as governed by norms which regulate appropriate strategies in specific translational situations. His own definition of norms is
…the translation of general values or ideas shared by a community – as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate – into performance instructions appropriate for and applicable to particular situations.
(Toury, 1995, p.55)
Toury sees norms as being situated midway between ‘general, relatively absolute rules’ and ‘pure idiosyncracies’ – they are social and cultural prescriptions for acceptable behaviour, some of which are ‘stronger and rule-like’, while others are ‘almost idiosyncratic’. Ultimately, a translator who manifests excessive deviation from normatively prescribed standards, will find her/himself subject to the sanction of no longer being employed. Acquired norms are thus constraints on translatorial freedom, which play a ‘role in directing translation activity in socio-culturally relevant settings’. (Toury, 1995, p.55). Because they control behaviour, norms allow us to observe regularities in translation shifts. They can be more or less constraining, depending on their potency.
Norms are inductively reconstructed through analyses of the corpora themselves, as well as through studying metatexts and paratexts such as declarations of translators, publishers and reviewers. However, corpora themselves are the most objective sources of information on norms, as statements made about translations may be biased in favour of individual views.
Toury’s Categories of Norms
Toury lists various norms, which operate at different stages of the translation process. His initial norm refers to the question of whether a translator adheres to ST norms or to those of the TC and TL – the former strategy yields what Toury describes as the adequacy of a translation, whereas the latter leads to the acceptability of a TT. Therefore, an adequate translation
…will tend to subscribe to the norms of the source text, and through them also to the norms of the SL culture [which may] entail certain incompatibilities with target norms and practices, especially [non-linguistic] ones.
(Toury, 1995, p.56 )
In the Potter TTs, the findings illustrate that there is adequacy in Ménard’s loyalty to the ST message, and in the retention of many original proper names. But, as Toury points out:
If, on the other hand, the second stance is adopted, norm systems of the TC are triggered and set into motion. Shifts from the ST would be an almost inevitable price.
(Toury, 1995, p.56 )
There is a significant degree of acceptability in Ménard’s TTs, from the viewpoint of idiomatic TL usage and the alteration of some ST proper names to TC equivalents. As Toury points out:
…even the most adequacy-oriented translation involves shifts from the ST…the occurrence of shifts [is] a true universal of translation.
(Toury, 1995, p.57 )
Munday points out, therefore, that
…no translation is… totally adequate or totally acceptable.
(Munday, 2001, p.113 )
The Potter TTs thus manifest the influence of competing SC and TC norms, so that they are a ‘hybrid’ of adequacy and acceptability. This confirms Toury’s statement that
Actual translation decisions (the results of which the researcher would confront) will necessarily involve some … compromise between the extremes implied by the initial norm.
(Toury, 1995, p.57 )
Toury goes on to describe preliminary norms as consisting of two subordinate concepts, namely, translation policy and directness of translation. The former norm refers to the reasons governing the selection of particular texts for translation. The latter norm considers whether a TT is a direct translation or whether there is an intermediate language involved.
Toury next describes operational norms, which he sub-divides into matricial norms and textual-linguistic norms. The former norms consider such issues as whether the TT is a complete and unabridged rendering of its source (the Potter TTs are indeed complete); whether certain passages have been relocated or omitted, and whether the translator has used footnotes (there is no relocation and no use of footnotes in the Potter TTs, and hardly any omission). On the other hand, many translators (perhaps mainly of older texts) use footnotes and/or endnotes, often quite detailed, to explain and interpret/justify translation choices, talk about the original text and writer, etc. Perhaps future Potter translations, in decades/centuries to come, will be scholarly, annotated editions.
Textual-linguistic norms are the most time-consuming component of DTS research, as they are concerned with analysing individual items of the text. Toury describes these norms, saying that they
…govern the selection of material to formulate the target text in, or replace the original textual and linguistic material with…[they consist of] general norms of translation and particular norms which would apply to a particular text-type. Some of them may be identical to the norms governing non-translational text production, but such an identity should never be taken for granted…[this is why] no study of translation can or…should [assume that] the latter is representative of the target language.
(Toury, 1995, p.59 )
I have, therefore, in my findings, briefly compared Ménard’s TTs with comparable corpora of non-translational (original) French youth-oriented literature. As Toury says:
An interesting field of study is…comparative: the nature of translational norms as compared to those governing non-translational kinds of text production…this kind of study is vital, if translating and translations are to be appropriately contextualized.
(Toury, 1995, p.61 )
Individual translators may show varying degrees of compliance with norms:
[It is] not as if all translators are passive in the face of…changes [in norms]…Rather, many of them, through their very activity, help in shaping the process…Wittingly or unwittingly, they all try to interfere with the ‘natural’ course of events and to divert it according to their own preferences…Complying with social pressures to constantly adjust one’s behaviour to norms that keep changing is …far from simple, and most people…do so only up to a point.
(Toury, 1995, p.62 )
It could, therefore, be difficult to judge whether a particular instance of translational behaviour is normative, idiosyncratic, or even deviant. One must analyse a sufficient number of ST and TT coupled pairs to be confident of one’s hypotheses.
Toury sums up the intricacy of his model:
[there is a]…multiplicity and variation of norms…real-life situations tend to be complex…[one must] note this complexity to draw any justifiable conclusions…the only viable way out seems to be to contextualise every phenomenon, every item, every text, every act, on the way to allotting the different norms themselves their appropriate position and valence…
(Toury, 1995, p.63 )
Toury’s Norms as Providing a Methodology for my Research on Rowling translations
I began by studying the Potter TTs as independent entities, without reference to the STs, to guage their readability and acceptability. As Toury says:
…it is advisable to start by studying assumed translations, along with their constituents, in terms of their ACCEPTABILITY [Toury’s emphasis] in the system(s) of which they purportedly form part.
(Toury, 1995, p. 71 )
The essential activity in my DTS research was to analyse translation shifts, to discern how corresponding ST and TT segments were related, and to establish what this revealed about underlying normative influences:
…the study could proceed to facts which are observational in the ‘second order’, i.e. facts which need to be (re)constructed before they can be submitted to scrutiny, most notably the relationships which tie together the output and input of individual acts, the ultimate intention being to end up reconstructing the non-observables at their roots, particularly the processes whereby they came into being…it will normally be TT segments…which would be mapped onto segments of the ST. In the process of mapping, the status of the former as translational replacements would be established, along with what they may be said to have replaced, thus shedding light on problems as they may have presented themselves in the particular act which yielded the text under observation, and on their solutions. (my emphasis.)
(Toury, 1995, p.94 )
Individual pairs of replaced and replacing segments of the Potter corpus – ST segments and their corresponding TT segments – were thus analysed as to the likely norms which lay beneath them. Toury states that the ‘ultimate goal of studies into individual pairs of texts’ is to establish, for a corpus, the ‘norm of translation equivalence’ and the ‘underlying concept of translation’. (Toury, 1995, p.95).
Conclusion: Comparing and contrasting source texts and target texts, comparing source language usage with target language usage in (re)translations...
So, in what has been a very long posting, i've discussed, albeit in general terms, the theoretical background to DTS and to translating for younger readers, and the research methods which inform my ongoing Translation Studies research, in which I look at how works of literature have entered and re-entered other language communities and cultures, through translation and retranslation, over decades and centuries.
Revisiting Harry Potter's French incarnation.
I have been meaning for quite some time to post further articles to this blog on the recently-commenced discussion topic of the translations from English, into French, of the Harry Potter series of seven novels (1997-2007) by J.K Rowling. The French children's writer Jean-François Ménard was the author of these superb Rowling renderings into his native language.
Before I began to research the translations into English of the works of the French writer, Jules Verne (the subject of my first, forthcoming book Retranslation Through the Centuries: The Example of Jules Verne, due to be published later this year by Peter Lang), my initial interest was in children's literature, and what that concept really means, and to what extent works such as those of Rowling can be blandly labelled - perhaps unfairly - as 'children's literature'. Don't lots of adults - myself included - enjoy her works and even find them dark, challenging andmulti-layered? I was then interested, pre-Verne, in how certain so-called children's authors had been translated over the years into French - novelists as diverse as the aforementioned J.K. Rowling, Lemony Snicket, Frances Hodgson Burnett (she of Little Lord Fauntleroy, A Little Princess and The Secret Garden classic children's {and adults'?} literary fame), Anna Sewell, Mark Twain, Carolyn Swift and Louisa May Alcott, to name but some. This interest in translation of classic and popular fiction in both directions of the language pair English/French has been a long-standing one. It dates back essentially to 2005, when, on the completion of the taught elements of my MA in Translation Studies (French and English) at Dublin City University (DCU), I was seeking to develop a research topic for my MA dissertation. I read an article by Dr Eithne O'Connell, of DCU, on the meanings ascribed to the concept known as 'children's literature', an article published as part of a collection of articles produced in homage to the foremost translation theorist Peter Newmark some seven years ago. Around the same time, I read an article by translation theorist Jeremy Munday on Descriptive-Translation Studies(DTS _ Gideon TOury) methodolgies, on examining existing translations to describe the translation strategies evident, and to explain, probabilistically, their multiple underlying causal influences, especially the Toury-championed cause of norms of translation.
Now, Munday gave, in his article on DTS, what proved to be, for me, a very interesting example of Toury's Descriptive-Explanatory Translation Studies empirical research methodologies and findings, in action: he discussed the translation, into Spanish and Italian respectively, of the Harry Potter novels, and compared and contrasted the translation approaches and the varying norms of translation influencing the translators. He discussed, among many other issues, how the names of characters such as Dumbledore and Snape, and many others, were rendered into these Romance languages; whether the language use was idiomatic or otherwise; and whether the translation is overtly presented as such, as deriving from a preceding literary work. He then drew inferences as to the likely norms and other causes influencing the translation forms witnessed by him, e.g. such causes include a multiplicity of influences such as publishers' and ST author's input to translation, the translator's own style, agency and intervention into the text which may be a form of 'derived creativity'; norms of accuracy, idiomaticity, source-language-oriented translation strategies versus target-oriented renderings, or hybrids of both orientations, and so on.
These articles - Munday and O'Connell - together with reading authors like Toury (his 1995 monograph entitled Descriptive Translation Studies - and Beyond is a seminal, still highly influential scholarly tome), whetted my appetite to discover how Harry Potter had been rendered into the French language.
So began months - later, years - of fun reading the Potter books in English and then in French, and then comparing certain passages and features between the English source text and French target text. I ended up discussing - as previous postings have illustrated in this blog - Ménard's (the French translator) use of style, choice of creative names for characters, places, wizarding artefacts, and so on.
In this posting, then, I would like to go back to 'basics' - here, I summarise what the introduction to my dissertation on the Gallicization of Harry was concerned with.
1.1 Research Questions
The ‘Harry Potter’ novels by J.K. Rowling have enjoyed huge success since the publication of the first book in the series, in 1997. Because I enjoyed these novels so much, I began to reflect on how Rowling’s work has won over the children of the ‘computer game’ generation to the joys of reading. Not alone do these novels challenge young readers, but they have proved equally fascinating to adults. I began to ponder the reasons for this appeal to all age groups. I also became curious about how exactly Rowling’s novels had been translated into French, and what type of impact these translations might have had on a Francophone readership. I therefore decided to investigate the nature of the French translations of these books. The main questions I set out to answer are:
What is understood by the problematically- definable genre known as children’s literature? Does it consist of common textual features, similar characters and predictable plots? Or have contemporary authors such as J.K. Rowling transformed a marginalized genre, by challenging its possibilities and its readership’s demographic profiles?
The most important question was that of determining the nature of the translation of these novels from SL English to TL French. How closely did the French translator adhere to the authority of the ST? Can his rendering be regarded as ST-oriented in nature, and thus as an “adequate” translation in Toury’s (1995) conceptualisation of the term? Or is it, rather, based more on TT norms and thus more appropriately classified as an “acceptable” set of translations from the viewpoint of the Target addressees?[1] Or does it occupy the middle ground between adequacy and acceptability?
To answer such questions, the major part of this research consists of an analysis of a sample of the parallel corpus of STs and French TTs of the six Harry Potter novels published to date. This analysis aims to ascertain the types of translational shifts evident. This helps to reveal the norms of translation likely to have influenced the translator.
I have thus attempted to characterise the general orientation which was evident in these translations, through the lens of the individual norms adhered to, according to various theoretical models of translational norms, developed by such theorists as Toury (1995). All such models are inscribed within the domain of Descriptive Translation Studies, hereinafter referred to as DTS. This is a sub-domain of ‘pure’ translation studies, according to the Holmes/Toury ‘map’ of Translation Studies, as discussed by Munday
( 2001, p.10). Toury (1995) has proposed a methodology for DTS, defined by Munday (2001,p.108) as “a non-prescriptive means of understanding the ‘norms’ at work in the translation process and of discovering the general ‘laws’ of translation.”
Using polysystem theory, as developed by Even-Zohar (Munday, 2001:109), I also decided to examine the position of Rowling’s novels in the literary polysystems of the Anglophone SC and the Francophone TC.
1.2 Norms of Translation
This research thus aims to yield insights into the normative system affecting the translation of the Harry Potter novels into French – norms are understood here as the cultural values and beliefs about translation which influence the translation process.
1.3 Research Objectives and Benefits
The following are the principal aims and expected benefits of this research.
· Understanding should be provided as to how the ‘Harry Potter’ novels were strategically translated for French audiences. What were the evident translational shifts as isolated from a representative sample? What do these alterations on the journey from donor text to receptor text teach us about the normative factors operating beneath the surface of the translation process?
· How might we classify the Harry Potter novels as a literary genre?
· Can the Harry Potter texts be regarded as canonical?
· I ask if there is scope for an element of prescriptivism or translational quality assessment in Toury’s DTS model.
I also seek evidence of stylistic contrasts between English and French in the corpus being examined.
1.4 Research Summary
I thus intend to examine how the TTs function as translations, both on the microscopic level of individual textemes, and on the macroscopic level: are the TTs openly portrayed as translations; are they unabridged renderings; is the translator acknowledged; why was this series of novels chosen for translation, and are these translations marketed as children’s texts, or also as adult literature?
1.5 Reasons For Personal Interest In Literary Translation, and Personal Views of Literary Genre Boundaries
As a child, I enjoyed all forms of literature, including texts aimed at older readers. I also engaged in creative writing in my childhood and teens. This is why a topic such as the translation of so-called young people’s literature interests me. Coupled with my love for literature is a passion for French, thus making this dissertation topic an ideal personal choice.
I always considered literature for younger readers to include not only works written for children, but any text which caught the interest of a young reader. Therefore, I regard as ‘children’s texts’ any material consumed by younger readers, though it may not originally have been intended for that age group only, or even at all.
1.6 Does Children’s Literature Even Exist as a Valid Category?
I therefore feel that there should not be a strictly defined genre known as children’s literature, as people of all ages have always read a variety of subject matter, aimed at different ages. The fact that the Harry Potter novels are enjoyed by all ages is testimony to the fact that certain works contain multiple semantic layers. They appeal on different levels to different age groups and display features associated not just with young readers’ texts, but also with darker, disturbing texts which challenge adults.
Furthermore, works such as Rowling’s contain a high linguistic register and a depth of characterisation which presume an able child reader. They simultaneously address a more experienced reader, alert to their deeper symbolism. I therefore reject the category of a separate or inferior genre labelled children’s literature.
1.7 Chapter Outline
Following this Introduction, my opening chapter of the dissertation went on to describe the structure of the dissertation:
Chapter Two surveys the literature dealing with the core theoretical concerns of this dissertation. It discusses DTS, translational norms and translating for children. It presents the methodology used in analysing the ‘Harry Potter’ corpus, a method based on Toury’s (1995) model of DTS. I therefore provide a set of methodological tools for Chapter 3, which is the chapter presenting my Findings. Chapter Two also comments on certain themes and features of the Potter novels, explaining why they may be regarded as a ‘hybrid’ literary genre.
Chapter Three presents the findings of the comparative analysis of segments of the STs and TTs. It describes the translational shifts and offers hypotheses as to the norms thought to underlie them. It seeks to integrate these findings, in order to propose an overall concept of translation for the corpus.
Chapter Four is the concluding section. It evaluates the usefulness of Toury’s DTS model in analysing the corpus and in developing valid, useful findings. It suggests amendments to the DTS model to improve its usefulness. I conclude by suggesting areas for continued research in the domain of translational norms in contemporary youth fiction.
1.8 Conclusion
Having summarised the research aims and benefits, I now go on to discuss the major theoretical concepts of DTS, norms and so-called children’s literature, thus providing a conceptual framework for this study.
In a future posting, I will speak more about DTS, norms and children's literature in general. I hope that this posting has helped explain and contextualise my reasons for coming to Descriptive Translation Studies and literary translation studies in general.
Ultimately, Rowling Translation Studies led, for me, to Verne Translation Studies, but I continue to enjoy many different authors, eras and novels in both English and French.
Friday, February 11, 2011
Polish School in Dublin
In the last few weeks, I was lucky enough to start a new part-time French language teaching job in a city centre school here in Dublin, which caters mainly for Polish nationals, though it is not at all uniquely confined to the Polish community in Dublin. It is known as 'Szkola Polska' and as the Association of Polish Schools in Dublin. I am teaching beginners' French to two lovely groups of Polish children of primary-school-going age; all very friendly, enthusiastic, polite and participative. In short, adorable.
I am also teaching Junior Cert French there to two lovely Polish teenage girls and beginners' French to an adult young couple.
The school is housed in a renovated building across from the Rotunda Hospital in the city centre, a building which also houses a Medical Centre, again, mainly frequented by the Polish community but clearly hoping to extend its clientele, just as the school aims to extend its students to include non-Polish people also.
My Polish colleagues are very warm, friendly, gentle people. I have taken this opportunity to begin teaching myself the Polish language and, having listened to some tapes, I can now say some basic phrases in Polish, useful for greeting Poles, etc.
I continue to give grinds in French also. And to apply for teaching and third-level lecturing jobs in French and Translation Studies, especially in the UK universities.
I'm hoping, finally, that if the Polish school continues to grow, it will offer other languages such as Spanish, English as a Foreign Language, etc.
I am also teaching Junior Cert French there to two lovely Polish teenage girls and beginners' French to an adult young couple.
The school is housed in a renovated building across from the Rotunda Hospital in the city centre, a building which also houses a Medical Centre, again, mainly frequented by the Polish community but clearly hoping to extend its clientele, just as the school aims to extend its students to include non-Polish people also.
My Polish colleagues are very warm, friendly, gentle people. I have taken this opportunity to begin teaching myself the Polish language and, having listened to some tapes, I can now say some basic phrases in Polish, useful for greeting Poles, etc.
I continue to give grinds in French also. And to apply for teaching and third-level lecturing jobs in French and Translation Studies, especially in the UK universities.
I'm hoping, finally, that if the Polish school continues to grow, it will offer other languages such as Spanish, English as a Foreign Language, etc.
Monday, January 3, 2011
New Year, new beginnings.
I'm sure I echo the feelings of very many people when I say that I am relieved that the past year has come to a close. This New year, more than any previous one, I have a strong sense of being glad to make new beginnings, to glimpse new horizons and to nurture new hopes, and I feel a sense of blessed relief that a very difficult year, both personally and nationally, has come to an end.
The last few months in particular proved nightmarish on the personal front. I have been working very hard at formulating applications for academic posts in French and Translation Studies, but despite doing very well and coming very close to being successful in a number of interviews/presentations, I haven't quite made it just yet. For instance, I was told that I came a very close second at a recent interview and presentation for a French associate teaching fellowship in a UK university. Rather than being unduly disappointed at not getting the job, I have, rather, come to perceive that it is actually encouraging approbation to have done well at this competition. It means, surely, that I am slowly but surely approaching my target and doing the right things.
And so, I have resolved not to be disheartened as the present economic crisis means that so many other people, highly-qualified after many years of hard work at university, are struggling to find work - not just work directly related to their specialised professions, but indeed, work of any description.
This means that people are having to become more creative and resourceful, and more patient and accepting of current social and economic difficulties. Thus, while I shall continue to apply for academic posts, I shall also, this year, continue to think outside the box and embrace solutions to the job search which represent alternatives to the conventional expectation of a 'nine to five' full-time job. In my case, that means continuing to seek more hours giving private tuition in French, English and Translation Studies; continuing to seek substitute teaching, as thin on the ground as such opportunities may be, and continuing to plug away at my translating work for the North American Jules Verne Society and at my Translation Studies research.
I will live for the moment and make the best of things as they are, taking one day at a time, not sweating the small stuff and trusting that things are working out in their own unpredictable way. I seem to be trotting out a number of hackneyed phrases here, but I find that the most trite, clichéd truisms actually contain a wealth of wisdom.
I was recently devastated that a job I was about to take up as an English Language Teaching Mentor in Malaysia fell through; the UK-based company which had recruited me wrote to say that they had made a mistake in appointing me and that what they actually needed was, specifically, primary school teachers. My own experience is at secondary and university levels.
I find it hard to believe that the company could have signed contracts with me, and allowed the process to get this far, only to realise two weeks before my starting date that my profile was not what they were looking for.
But I feel that everything happens for a reason. I am quite content to continue working in areas more closely related to my qualifications, viz. French and Translation.
I recently found a lovely new studio apartment here in Dublin, with lovely neighbours and a charming landlady. So, as I said at the beginning of this posting, 2011 has all the allure of a fresh start. I am happy to be remaining in Dublin, near to my family, especially my disabled brother Neil, and to be continuing to concentrate on the subjects I love, teaching and researching Francophone-related topics in a city I call home.
The worries of the past few months have melted like the recent snow. And while the snow may return, I am determined that my anxieties will not resume!
It's all a question of perspective, of coping. And - dare I say it - of knowing when and how to be strong in the face of the minority of not-so-desirable characters we are all occasionally confronted with.
And what has really helped me over the past few months, of job-seeking and house-hunting, has been quite simply the wonderful care, support and help of close, trusted friends, whose presence reminds you, when times are hard, that yes, the world is a beautiful and kind, caring place despite occasional appearances to the contrary.
Friends like Krystyna and Cathy. who empathised with the dearth of academic opportunities and gave, and continue to give, much practical advice...
Jim, who rescued me from a horrendous 'apartment' and gave me a peaceful, comfortable home to share with him these past few months, while I searched for a suitable place to call home and set down new roots, something which is now a fait accompli.
My close family for moral and practical support. Including those loved ones who have passed on and to whom I pray.
For Irish people in general, 2010 has truly been an annus horribilis. But ... it's history!
And I truly believe that we are now collectively dusting ourselves off, bruised but unbroken, in order to return to hope, acceptance and new forms of prosperity which are less material but more lasting. Emotional, moral prosperity and stability, if that makes sense.
To quote one more cliché which I feel sums up the feeling of hope and recovery to which we Irish currently aspire:
The darkest hour is before the dawn.
Happy New Year!
The last few months in particular proved nightmarish on the personal front. I have been working very hard at formulating applications for academic posts in French and Translation Studies, but despite doing very well and coming very close to being successful in a number of interviews/presentations, I haven't quite made it just yet. For instance, I was told that I came a very close second at a recent interview and presentation for a French associate teaching fellowship in a UK university. Rather than being unduly disappointed at not getting the job, I have, rather, come to perceive that it is actually encouraging approbation to have done well at this competition. It means, surely, that I am slowly but surely approaching my target and doing the right things.
And so, I have resolved not to be disheartened as the present economic crisis means that so many other people, highly-qualified after many years of hard work at university, are struggling to find work - not just work directly related to their specialised professions, but indeed, work of any description.
This means that people are having to become more creative and resourceful, and more patient and accepting of current social and economic difficulties. Thus, while I shall continue to apply for academic posts, I shall also, this year, continue to think outside the box and embrace solutions to the job search which represent alternatives to the conventional expectation of a 'nine to five' full-time job. In my case, that means continuing to seek more hours giving private tuition in French, English and Translation Studies; continuing to seek substitute teaching, as thin on the ground as such opportunities may be, and continuing to plug away at my translating work for the North American Jules Verne Society and at my Translation Studies research.
I will live for the moment and make the best of things as they are, taking one day at a time, not sweating the small stuff and trusting that things are working out in their own unpredictable way. I seem to be trotting out a number of hackneyed phrases here, but I find that the most trite, clichéd truisms actually contain a wealth of wisdom.
I was recently devastated that a job I was about to take up as an English Language Teaching Mentor in Malaysia fell through; the UK-based company which had recruited me wrote to say that they had made a mistake in appointing me and that what they actually needed was, specifically, primary school teachers. My own experience is at secondary and university levels.
I find it hard to believe that the company could have signed contracts with me, and allowed the process to get this far, only to realise two weeks before my starting date that my profile was not what they were looking for.
But I feel that everything happens for a reason. I am quite content to continue working in areas more closely related to my qualifications, viz. French and Translation.
I recently found a lovely new studio apartment here in Dublin, with lovely neighbours and a charming landlady. So, as I said at the beginning of this posting, 2011 has all the allure of a fresh start. I am happy to be remaining in Dublin, near to my family, especially my disabled brother Neil, and to be continuing to concentrate on the subjects I love, teaching and researching Francophone-related topics in a city I call home.
The worries of the past few months have melted like the recent snow. And while the snow may return, I am determined that my anxieties will not resume!
It's all a question of perspective, of coping. And - dare I say it - of knowing when and how to be strong in the face of the minority of not-so-desirable characters we are all occasionally confronted with.
And what has really helped me over the past few months, of job-seeking and house-hunting, has been quite simply the wonderful care, support and help of close, trusted friends, whose presence reminds you, when times are hard, that yes, the world is a beautiful and kind, caring place despite occasional appearances to the contrary.
Friends like Krystyna and Cathy. who empathised with the dearth of academic opportunities and gave, and continue to give, much practical advice...
Jim, who rescued me from a horrendous 'apartment' and gave me a peaceful, comfortable home to share with him these past few months, while I searched for a suitable place to call home and set down new roots, something which is now a fait accompli.
My close family for moral and practical support. Including those loved ones who have passed on and to whom I pray.
For Irish people in general, 2010 has truly been an annus horribilis. But ... it's history!
And I truly believe that we are now collectively dusting ourselves off, bruised but unbroken, in order to return to hope, acceptance and new forms of prosperity which are less material but more lasting. Emotional, moral prosperity and stability, if that makes sense.
To quote one more cliché which I feel sums up the feeling of hope and recovery to which we Irish currently aspire:
The darkest hour is before the dawn.
Happy New Year!
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